It should come as no surprise that our enjoyment of gathering together to decorate the family Christmas tree began with a “longing for home.”
Tag Archives: 19th century
Bust of Athena
Porcelain
Unknown Sculptor, after Paul Duboy
French, 1860-1880
M&G’s magnificent porcelain bust of a female warrior presents the viewer with two fascinating mysteries.
Who Crafted It?
The bust has no signature or manufacture’s marks. The base does, but documented provenance of the piece, which dates to the mid-twentieth century, reveals that the base is not original to the sculpture. Experts have examined M&G’s bust and place its manufacture in France between 1860 and 1880. At that time similar, elaborately dressed busts were popular, and the techniques needed to produce the richly colored glazes for the clothing and accessories while leaving smooth, lightly colored biscuit porcelain for the skin and various details had been perfected. The contrast between the solid, smooth, glossy sections and the soft, matte texture of the biscuit sections heightens the visual interest of works like these.
Paul Duboy (1830-1887), a French sculptor, exhibited his sculpture at the prestigious Paris Salon from 1853-1882. Duboy made and signed busts similar to M&G’s sculpture, which lacks his elaborate signature on its back. Yet, because of its similarity to his other works, authorities have suggested using “in the manner of” or “after” Paul Duboy.
Who Is This Female Warrior?
From the pantheon of candidates, the personification of the French Republic has been suggested. During the French Revolution, Marianne embodied the qualities valued by French citizens: liberty, equality, fraternity, and reason. M&G’s bust, however, lacks the Phrygian cap, laurel wreath or spiked diadem, and other visual symbols attributed to Marianne.
The Greek goddess Athena is a more likely candidate. Zeus, the chief Greek deity, was her father. Legend tells that Athena sprang full-grown from Zeus’s forehead dressed in complete Greek armor. As the goddess of war, Athena participated in the Trojan War and has generally been portrayed with a spear or bow and arrows. She was also the goddess of domestic handicrafts, animal husbandry, and wisdom. Generally, she used her wisdom to supply warriors with the tactics, strategy, and inspiration needed to defeat enemies. Animal symbols associated with Athena include the owl and snake, both representing wisdom (she also cursed Medusa with hair of snakes), and the horse referencing her teaching man how to tame the animal. While an unusual artistic reference, perhaps the horses on M&G’s helmet symbolize this lore. The eagle-winged dragon atop M&G’s helmet, however, has no known Athenian reference.
Another possible female warrior may be Minerva, the Roman version of Athena. The two share similar attributes, but the Roman goddess of war is usually depicted wearing an Attic helmet, which does not cover the face but often has ear guards, and may have decorative elements on top. Roman soldiers typically wore Attic helmets and variations were common after the fall of the Roman empire. M&G’s bust wears a greatly-modified and highly-decorated Attic helmet.
Virtually all artist renderings of both Athena and Minerva wear loose-fitting Greco-Roman garments, even when they wear armor. M&G’s bust is elaborately dressed and draped in the manner of many busts from the period of its manufacture. She also wears hints of decorative gold armor and a massive, ornate gold chain.
Some of the busts produced in this period are identified as famous individuals and with a name included on the sculpture. Most, however, are simply beautiful works of art with generic titles, not based on any specific individual. M&G’s bust may simply be a beautiful porcelain piece by an unknown, skilled artist depicting a female warrior.
The bust has presented more mysteries than answers. However, if you examine the piece closely you can be assured of two things: you will be impressed with its artistic quality and beauty, and you will gain a better understanding of the phrase “a porcelain complexion.”
Bill Pinkston, retired educator and M&G volunteer
Published 2024
Enjoy this series of segments highlighting Picture Books of the Past: Reading Old Master Paintings, a loan exhibition of 60+ works from the M&G collection. The exhibit has traveled to The Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C. and the Orlando Museum of Art in Florida.
Gustave Doré was a prolific painter, illustrator, engraver, and sculptor. He published his first drawings at age 15 and went on to become the most sought-after illustrator of the mid-19th century.
Bust of Christ
Giuseppe Bessi
Below the image, click play to listen.
Enjoy this series of segments highlighting Picture Books of the Past: Reading Old Master Paintings, a loan exhibition of 60+ works from the M&G collection. The exhibit has traveled to The Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C. and the Orlando Museum of Art in Florida.
During his lifetime, Edwin Long took several extended trips to Egypt and Syria and the images sparked by these memorable journeys are clearly evident in this beautiful rendering of Vashti from the book of Esther.
This tender, graceful work by Benjamin West is one of a special series of paintings commissioned by King George III to decorate a chapel at Windsor Castle.
Visit HERE for the next video to think on things that are Worthy of Praise.
Christ Blessing is an intriguing 19th-century image revealing the sovereignty of the risen Christ.
Visit HERE for the next video to consider those things that are Lovely.
St. Nicholas, the Wonderworker
Moscow School
Below the image, click play to listen.
Victorian artist, Eyre Crowe does a masterful job of recreating that moment in the town of Wittenberg, Germany that set in motion the Protestant Reformation.
Majolica Charger
Glazed earthenware, signed G. Battaglia
Gaetano Battaglia
Italian, c. 1826-1887
Majolica is earthenware that has been fired in a kiln, coated with an opaque white glaze, decorated with other pigments and fired again, fixing the glaze and design onto the ceramic. The process originated in Africa around the 6th century. By the 13th century, techniques and the ability to paint detailed designs were perfected. It was discovered that a clear glaze and a third firing added luster to the piece.
Italians became enamored of these decorative ceramics. Large quantities were produced in Africa and Spain and passed through ports on the Spanish island of Majorca on their way to Italy. Thinking the pieces had been made there, Italians called this kind of ceramic majolica or maiolica.
By the Italian Renaissance, techniques for producing majolica ceramics had reached Italy. Ceramists produced decorated plates, jars, cups, pitchers, and ornamental pieces. Often the item featured a portrait of a bride, a family member or some notable. Apothecary jars bearing the name of their contents were embellished with scrolling vines, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Wealthy families would display large sets of dishes and serving pieces which were used to impress guests at elaborate banquets.
Often these pieces were istoriato, meaning they illustrated a story—usually mythological, historic, or biblical. Sometimes the narrative would cover the entire surface of the piece; other times, as seen on M&G’s charger, the picture would be surrounded by intricately designed borders. Today museums and collectors prize even the broken pieces of Italian Renaissance majolica.
Although it may look it, M&G’s Majolica Charger is not dated to the Italian Renaissance. In the late 1800s, there was a resurgence of interest in the Italian Renaissance ceramic design, and Italian ceramists produced high quality stoneware in the Renaissance style to meet the demand. M&G’s charger is one such piece.
Making Majolica
Creating an elaborate majolica requires great skill. Not only must the clay be formed and fired carefully, but the tin oxide glaze which dries into an opaque, white surface must also be evenly applied. Colored glazes are then painted onto the prepared surface. The color palette is extremely limited. Black, yellow, blue, golden brown, and green were used on M&G’s charger—typical of majolica designs. Diluting, concentrating, or mixing the glaze pigments can produce various shades of colors.
Painting on the porous white surface is extremely unforgiving. Once applied, the pigment cannot be removed or hidden by painting over it. Adding pigment to the initial layer produces different effects; however, the original brush stroke, as well as any additional painted strokes and colors in subsequent layers must be adeptly applied. There is no way to repair a mistake.
Consider the border on the lip of M&G’s charger. The inner ring consists of an amber background with 50 hand-drawn, double circles of two different intensities of a golden-brown pigment. The outer border contains 8 fauns, 4 winged angel heads, and 4 angel torsos arranged among scrolling foliage and architectural flourishes. These are arranged in four matching quadrants. The figures are outlined in black and shaded with gray. After the black outlines were painted, the intense blue background areas were painted individually. The lip alone required a precise, highly skilled artisan.
Gaetano Battaglia
Painters of istoriato majolica scenes were consummate craftsmen, such as Gaetano Battaglia (c. 1826-1887). During his lifetime he was known as “a painter of figures.” His exquisite work, often large ceramics with Battaglia’s signature, are in museums and private collections.
His career started around 1850 in Naples, Italy, but little is known of his early works or employment. When the Mosca brothers founded Raffaele Mosca & Compagno in 1865, they hired Battaglia, and he helped them hire other ceramic painters. During the company’s more than 40-year history, its name and ownership repeatedly changed. Mosca produced architectural ceramics and decorative pieces, and it was known for producing an “odorless toilet,” patented by one of the brothers. Battaglia’s duration at the firm, however, is unknown.
Most ceramic painters of the period did not (or were not permitted to) sign their pieces. While many works are attributed to Battaglia, most earthenware known to be his are inscribed with his signature or initials. Generally, his signature is paired with the letter “N” or with “Napoli” for Naples. M&G’s Majolica Charger bears both Battaglia’s signature and an “N” on the reverse.
The specific company that produced many of Battaglia’s signed pieces, however, is unknown. The “Fca” on M&G’s charger (which appears as “Fabb” on other Battaglia pieces) presumably stands for Fabbrica, Italian for “factory.” At that time there were numerous ceramic companies in Naples which had Fabbrica as part of their name. Battaglia may have worked for one of those companies or fired his earthenware designs in a hired kiln, which was a known practice at the time.
The Image
For istoriato earthenware, ceramists in the 1800s often referenced narrative etchings as their design source. The artists would also sketch scenes found in galleries, churches, and palaces as inspiration for their works. A popular image would often be painted by different ceramists on various earthenware pieces, but the source of the design can help identify the narrative’s subject.
M&G’s Charger appears to be unique in that the source of the narrative image is unknown, and no other ceramics are known to have a similar subject. Therefore, only details in the image can be used to determine the pictorial scene. The flowing, loose-fitting garments on the three main figures are of the type artists of the time used for Biblical characters. The winged angel pointing a direction and the three putto leading the procession further suggest a Biblical illustration.
For many years, Flight of the Holy Family into Egypt was the title associated with the charger; however Mary, Joseph, and the infant Jesus were the only Biblical characters involved in the secretive escape from Herod’s slaughter of the innocents (Matthew 2:13-21). The missing infant Jesus and the second adult male on M&G’s charger make this assumption unlikely. Also, the angel instructing Joseph to take his family to Egypt appeared to him in a dream prior to the journey and is rarely included in paintings of the subject by the Old Masters. Additionally, the Holy Family was of modest means and traveled discreetly; yet the charger depicts a large entourage of people and animals behind the three mounted figures. Neither does the imagery follow typical illustrations of the family’s return from Egypt.
More likely the scene is Abraham, his wife Sarah, and nephew Lot on their departure to Canaan. God directed Abraham to travel “unto a land that I will shew thee.” A pointing angel and the procession of putto are used as an artistic rendering of God’s directing the travelers. The 75-year-old Abraham, his “fair. . . to look upon” wife, and the younger Lot correspond to the mounted figures on the charger. Their servants, belongings, and herds are depicted following the main figures (Genesis 12).
While a great deal is known about M&G’s charger, many questions remain unanswered. Was this rarely depicted scene part of a set of dishes and serving pieces illustrating various biblical scenes? If so, do other pieces of the set exist? Or was this piece a unique, limited commission for a specific purpose? More research may reveal answers, but some specifics may never be known, which only adds interest to M&G’s mysterious, beautiful Majolica Charger.
William Pinkston, retired educator and M&G volunteer
Published 2021
Suggested References:
- Tortolani, La fabbrica napoletana dei fratelli Mosca: il Bello e l’Utile, in “Faenza,” XCIII, 2007, p. 62
- Fiorillo, Ciro. 1992. “Gaetano Battaglia maiolicaro a Napoli.” In Quaderni dell’Emilceramica: storia e tecnica della ceramica particolarmente nell’arredo domestico e urbano16: 3–8.
- Municipal Galleries at Palazzo Ciacchi
