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Tag Archives: Italian renaissance

Object of the Month: August 2026

St. John the Baptist in the Wilderness

Oil on panel, c. 1521-23

Francesco Ubertini, called Il Bacchiacca

Florentine, 1494–1557

A 1961 Baltimore Museum of Art catalog for an exhibition entitled, Bacchiacca and His Friends, stated that the featured artist’s work had only been seriously studied for the previous 80+ years and had never before been drawn together for a special exhibition despite the artist being described as “charming,” “ingenious,” and “a diligent painter, especially of small figures, which he did perfectly.”

On loan for this first exhibition of works by Francesco Ubertini, called Bacchiacca, was the Museum & Gallery’s painting, St. John the Baptist in the Wilderness. The painting was a 1951 accession—in the inaugural year of M&G, and it aligned well with the Collection’s focus on sacred art by the Old Masters and placed M&G in the company of other museums with works by Bacchiacca, such as the Uffizi Gallery (Florence), Getty Museum (Los Angeles), National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.), and the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York).

Bacchiacca came from a Florentine family of at least five other artists, including his father (a goldsmith), two brothers (painters), his son (painter) and his nephew (an embroiderer). He learned in the studio of Perugino, collaborated with his friend, Andrea del Sarto, and was peers with the most influential early Mannerists in Florence. Known for his mastery of small figure compositions, he borrowed portions from his mentor, as well as artists like Michelangelo, Leonardo, Fra Bartolommeo, and even Albrecht Dürer and other Northern European masters. He painted in the early decades of the emerging Mannerist style yet successfully married its purposeful distortions and crowded surfaces with the order and balance of the Renaissance style.

Bacchiacca was meticulous in his depictions of flora, fauna, fabrics and other small details. Some have been disdainful of Bacchiacca’s borrowing figures and other elements in his paintings, as well as his production of decorative elements for furnishings in private studies, palaces and public spaces (such as his designs for two series of tapestries now held in the Palazzo Vecchio and the permanent collection of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence). While some critics imply that Bacchiacca’s borrowing and his focus on small pictures reflects an incapacity for grander things, and that the use of his gifts for decorative purposes beyond the canvas (or panel) somehow cheapens his seriousness as an artist, those opinions do not reflect his estimation as an artist in his own day. In fact, these very aspects of his work speak to the breadth of his gifts, and his reputation was high enough to elevate him to the attention and payroll of Duke Cosimo I de’ Medici, for whom he became court painter.

Approximately 60-70% of Bacchiacca’s works have religious subjects. He painted at least three works depicting a young John the Baptist alone in the wilderness. Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael were two of the first artists to focus on John in this way, but others quickly followed their lead. Bacchiacca’s rendering of the young John was painted shortly after Raphael’s, demonstrating how quickly this trend spread among painters.

This artistic focus on John the Baptist is appropriate, given his importance in the Bible. He is one of only seven men whose very names were prophesied in Scripture before their birth. Each of the Gospels (the first four books of the New Testament) mentions John’s ministry. He was the last of the Old Testament prophets, arriving on the scene some 400 years after the final words of Malachi’s message. Preparing for, and overlapping with, Jesus’ ministry, John is also the first of the New Testament prophets.

Also unique about John is the nature of his ministry. We do not know precisely when John made the wilderness his home, but it’s clear that he was in that remote place when God called him to the message that would define the remainder of his brief ministry (Luke 3:1-6). His mission was to reach his Jewish countrymen with the announcement of Messiah’s imminent coming, calling them to repentance from their sins, followed by baptism.

Though crowds came from surrounding cities to observe his ministry, John clarified that he was not the One they were anticipating (based on Old Testament prophecies about Messiah). John said very plainly that his work was merely in preparation for and secondary to the One he proclaimed (Matthew 3:11-12; John 3:25-30). His entire purpose was to point his listeners to Jesus (John 2:29-31, 35-37).

Like M&G’s St. John the Baptist in the Wilderness, artists often represent John with easily recognizable clues to his identity (referred to as iconography in art). These are drawn both from specific biblical passages about John and distilled themes from his ministry. Scripture passages about John mention that he was clothed in camel’s hair, a leather belt, in a wilderness setting. Bacchiacca and his peers at times had to depict things beyond their personal experience, such as a garment made from the skin of animals they didn’t know, employing something more familiar (perhaps a leopard or cheetah skin in place of camel’s hair).

Other identifiers of John in this painting need a bit of investigation:

  • There are two deer: These likely refer to the psalmist’s comparison of his soul’s thirst for God to deer who pant for a spring (Psalm 42:1-2).
  • A spring of water, a cup, and a river: These refer to John’s signature ministry of baptizing all who heeded his call to repentance. Also pivotal is John’s baptism of Jesus Christ, which was requested by Christ Himself, despite the protestations of John that he, not Jesus, stood in need of baptism (Matthew 3:13-17).
  • A cross made of reeds: This refers to a specific exchange between Jesus and his audience (Matthew 11:7), in which Jesus asks his audience what they expected to witness when they flocked to the Jordan River to see John. John’s entire ministry had pointed to Jesus the Messiah and now, when John was in prison and asked for reassurance about Christ, Jesus tells the crowd that John was not weak or buffeted like a reed. On the contrary, John’s whole ministry, which was always based upon God’s revelations to John about Jesus’ identity, pointed unbendingly to the Lamb that would be slain for sin.

A collection of sacred art has tremendous value, with viewers’ appreciation growing with their understanding of each piece. Works of art have always elucidated each artist’s era. Sacred artworks, when based accurately on God’s Word, can also deepen biblical understanding. They can expose our needs, deepen our affections, and exhilarate our souls—the very purpose and mission of M&G.

 

Dr. Stephen B. Jones, M&G volunteer

 

Sources

virtualuffizi.com

britishmuseum.org

Breeskin, A., Rosenthal, G., and Merritt, H. S. (1961). Bacchiacca and his Friends: Florentine Paintings and Drawing of the Sixteenth Century.

Wright, Christopher. (1992). The World’s Master Paintings from the Early Renaissance to the Present Day; A ComprehensiveLlisting of Works by 1300 Painters and a Complete Guide to Their Locations Worldwide. Routledge, England

Brinkmann Pimentel, U. M., Peterson, E. A., Seiner, M. A., & Garrett, M. (2000). Italian Art at the Utah Museum of Fine Arts.

Nolan, John M., Hess, Donnalynn, and Jones, Stephen B. (2001). John the Baptist and the Baroque Vision.Bob Jones University Museum & Gallery, Inc.

Published 2026

Object of the Month: July 2026

St. Paul and a Deacon

St. Jude Thaddeus and St. John the Evangelist

Tempera on panel, c. 1390-95

Tommaso del Mazza, called the Master of St. Verdiana

Florentine, active 1377-1392

Among the Museum & Gallery’s large collection, there are many altarpieces. Some are complete and some are sections of an altarpiece such as a predella or a removable wing. While considered “incomplete,” these panels stand alone as magnificent examples of art history.

One such is a pair of altarpiece wings titled St. Jude Thaddeus and St. John the Evangelist and St. Paul and a Deacon. Painted c. 1390-95 or the late Trecento, they show six figures from church history and link earthly worshippers with the divine. The details of the paintings—their rounded figures, the precise punchwork in gold, as well as the fluid and monumental fabrics—show a stylistic veneration of Giotto and the early Trecento. Compared to other paintings in the collection, they are not immediately eye-catching. However, their intricate details provide questions that are still being answered.

One resolved question surrounding the wings is the identity of the artist. The earliest collection records attributed them to the late-Trecento painter Giovanni del Biondo, then to the Master of St. Verdiana. The name comes from a rare depiction of Saint Verdiana in Atlanta’s The High Museum of Art, Madonna and Child with Six Saints. St. Verdiana is depicted with two snakes as her distinguishing attribute. Barbara Deimling was one of the first to connect the name Tommaso del Mazza to the Master of St. Verdiana in Tradition & Innovation in Florentine Trecento Painting: Corpus of Florentine Painting. Del Mazza (active 1377-1392) was trained in Florence and was influenced by the work of Agnolo Gaddi and Jacopo di Cione. Although del Mazza is considered a minor painter in the late-Italian Gothic style, he had a busy workshop in Florence, and his oeuvre consists of about fifty paintings.

One unanswered question continues to plague scholars: If these wings were part of a larger triptych and if so, where are the other panels? While there is speculation of other sections, Deimling and a few others believe the center panel to be The Annunciation from the J. Paul Getty Museum collection. It depicts the moment Gabriel appears to Mary and informs her that she will be the mother of Jesus.

M&G’s two wing panels were sent to the Getty where the conservation department examined and restored them. Up to that point, the union had been based on separate photographs and had never been seen together by modern historians. After extensive analysis, Yvonne Szafran, paintings conservator at the Getty at the time, concluded there is no way of being certain all the panels belong together. However, when the three works were brought together at M&G for an exhibition (and subsequent symposium) entitled Twilight of a Tradition, opinions were still divided about the panels originally being a united triptych.

More research will be needed to reach conclusive results on this particular altarpiece and more can be read about these two wings and the exhibition in the catalog Discovering a Pre-Renaissance Master: Tommaso del Mazza. Like the artwork, the catalog does an excellent job in conveying the technical skill of a moderately overlooked artist. Perhaps it is the small details and the small things which lead us to some of the largest discoveries.

KC Christmas Beach, artist and M&G volunteer

 

Published 2026

Madonna and Child with Saints and Cherubs, Francesco Menzocchi

The Renaissance interest in realism and naturalism even influenced how works of art were framed!

High Renaissance Cassone

One of the most important pieces of furniture during the Italian Renaissance was the cassone—the Italian word for a chest.

Object of the Month: February 2026

Sorrowing Virgin

Glazed Terracotta, c. 1500

Andrea della Robbia

Florence, 1435-1525

Andrea della Robbia was born into a family known for artistic innovation. His uncle, Luca della Robbia pioneered glazed terracotta as a durable and expressive sculptural medium. As Luca’s primary heir, Andrea learned not only sculptural principles of form and proportion from his uncle, but also the closely guarded technical procedures of glazed terracotta that made the family’s works exceptional in Renaissance Florence.

Throughout his long and prolific career, Andrea expanded and perfected the aesthetic, technical, and practical uses of tin-glazed clay sculpture. His terracotta works are recognizable for their highly refined modeling of serene faces and graceful drapery, their luminous surfaces, and their brilliant colors.

Although Luca and Andrea both carefully guarded their tin-glazing techniques, an early form of corporate espionage resulted in these methods being leaked, allowing competitors—such as Benedetto Buglioni, who crafted M&G’s Pair of Angels with Candlesticks—to share the profitability of glazed terracotta. Others, like Andrea’s son, Girolamo della Robbia, built on the families’ advances and developed firing processes needed for extremely large pieces, like M&G’s terracotta busts of French royalty.

Savonarola, a contemporary of Andrea, was a fiery preacher calling for reform within the Roman Catholic Church. He was not anti-art, but was critical of excessive ornamentation and sensuous beauty in religious art.  He fostered art that reflected humility, repentance, and Christian devotion. There is documented evidence that contemporary Florentine artists such as Botticelli, were followers of Savonarola. Their works show dramatic stylistic shifts as Savonarola rose to prominence, as illustrated by M&G’s Botticelli tondo.

Art historians, including Sir John Pope-Hennessy and Franco Gentilini, have noted that Andrea’s later works resonate with what Savonarola described as “semplicità devota” (devout simplicity). Andrea increasingly favored simpler compositions and less exuberant ornamentation. His later images of the Virgin portray a quiet gravity rather than the courtly sweetness seen in both Luca’s works and Andrea’s earlier productions. There is no documentary evidence of a personal or ideological connection between Andrea and Savonarola; however, Andrea’s later works reflect the tone and purpose of the religious reform Savonarola advocated. One expert noted that M&G’s Sorrowing Virgin aligns not with Andrea’s early works, created under his uncle’s tutelage, but with those from his later period, “when he, himself was in control” of the studio.

The Same Molds

Andrea della Robbia’s wall-mounted glazed terracotta reliefs of the Virgin and Child were highly popular. The graceful, serene expression of the Virgin and the strong, confident appearance of the infant Christ reflect a devotional mood suitable for chapels, hospitals, orphanages, and private homes. These works also embody the “devout simplicity” endorsed by Savonarola.

While the background and frames vary considerably, the figures themselves were likely produced from the same molds. Minor variations can be as seen in details such as the Virgin’s head covering or placement of her right hand. Occasionally more significant variations occur, such as a swaddled Christ seated on His mother’s lap. These and other works that appear to derive from the same molds, can be found in situ in Italy, and in museums and private collections worldwide. Some have direct provenance to Andrea and his studio. A repeated detail also seen in M&G’s piece, is the decorative, single slipped reef knot on Mary’s belt, an Italian Renaissance symbol for purity.

M&G’s Sorrowing Virgin is unsigned; few Italian Renaissance terracotta pieces are, but some of the molds used to make Andrea’s wall-mounted reliefs of the Virgin and Child, as well as other works from his studio, appear to have been used in forming M&G’s piece. Experts agree that these and other similarities justify attributing M&G’s Sorrowing Virgin to Andrea and his studio.

M&G’s Sorrowing Virgin

The first known reference to M&G’s piece is in Allan Marquand’s 1922 Andrea Della Robbia and His Atelier.  Marquand describes the sculpture, stating, “This much injured half figure of the Virgin is only partially glazed,” that in 1920 it was owned by the New York art dealership French & Co., and that it had received some conservation treatment.

It is possible that the piece experienced a kiln disaster during the firing to affix the glazes. Its extensive damage and conservation are in keeping with this scenario.

  • The right side of the sculpture is glazed in standard colors for Renaissance terracotta. However, during conservation, areas not usually damaged by normal wear, received in-painting.
  • The left side required extensive repair and was painted brown. It is unknown if any glazing survives beneath the paint.
  • During the Renaissance, a permanent red glaze was impossible; artists often glazed areas brown and painted them red after firing. The Virgin’s dress is finished in a brown glaze, but the color intended for it is unknown.
  • A firing problem could explain the very dark, unglazed terracotta of Mary’s face, neck, and hands.

The della Robbia studio developed skin-tone glazes, which Andrea used on works intended to be viewed from a distance. For more intimate sculptures, leaving the skin unglazed resulted in a pale brown, matte surface. Set against the high gloss of their glazed surroundings, these matte areas appeared as soft flesh. Unglazed clay also allowed for detailed modeling and subtle facial expressions, which would have been obscured by thick glaze. The expressions of the figures became the focal point of the sculpture. In keeping with Savonarola’s message, unglazed terracotta would convey the Virgin’s suffering more powerfully than a polished surface would.

The Virgin Mary knew her Son, Jesus Christ, was the Messiah, the God-sent Redeemer. Her sorrow at His crucifixion stemmed from His unjust treatment and excruciating suffering. That sorrow would have been tempered by what the angel Gabriel had told her as His miraculous birth was described. He, the Son of God, would not only be her Redeemer, but He would also be an Everlasting King. Believing God, she had both hope and peace with her sorrow. All of which can be seen in the face of Andrea della Robbia’s Sorrowing Virgin.

 

William Pinkston, retired educator and M&G volunteer

 

Suggested References

Cambareri, Marietta. Della Robbia: Sculpting with Color in Renaissance Florence (Boston: MFA Publications, Museum of Fine Arts. Boston, MA. 2016)

Marquand, Allan. Andrea Della Robbia and His Atelier (Princeton University Press. Princeton, NJ. 1922)

 

 

Published 2026

Object of the Month: December 2025

Pair of Angels with Candlesticks

Glazed terracotta, c. 1500

Benedetto Buglioni (attributed to)

Florence, 1459/60 – 1521

Italian Renaissance masters like Donatello, Cellini, and Michaelangelo created magnificent sculptures chiseled from stone, carved from wood, or cast in metal. These methods were time-consuming and costly. In the early 1440s, Luca della Robbia, a stone sculptor in Florence, was able to cut the time and cost of sculpture production by developing techniques for tin-glazed terracotta. In addition to achieving the magnificent detail found in the expensive materials, he produced vibrant, permanent colors in his sculptures which other media could not duplicate. Also, he designed multiple modified pieces from molds, which greatly reduced production time and cost.

As a businessman, Luca della Robbia managed a large workshop, where he produced high quality, tin-glazed terracotta pieces and preserved the secrecy of his formulas and techniques. His nephew, Andrea della Robbia inherited both Luca’s workshop and secrets. He became an outstanding sculptor, creating pieces beyond his uncle’s capabilities. (Andrea’s sons, Giovanni and Girolamo, also became sculptors and practiced the family’s secrets. Girolamo accepted the king of France’s invitation to Paris in 1517, where he made M&G’s terracotta busts of French nobility.)

Benedetto Buglioni

The son of a sculptor, Benedetto Buglioni was born in Florence in 1459/60. He probably studied under Andrea del Verrocchio (Leonardo da Vinci’s teacher) and learned terracotta sculpting as a pupil in the della Robbia workshop of Luca and later Andrea. According to Giorgio Vasari, a contemporary artist and historian, Benedetto learned the “secret of glazed earthenware” from a female servant “who came out of the house of Andrea della Robbia.”

In his early 20s, Benedetto opened his own terracotta workshop in Florence. For unknown reasons, from 1487 to 1490, he and his brother produced terracotta works in Perugia, a city about 100 miles from Florence.  Returning to Florence, the Buglioni brothers opened their own workshop and became della Robbia’s chief competitors. High quality, tin-glazed terracotta was extremely popular, and there were plenty of commissions for both workshops.

In time Benedetto was recognized as a master artist. His clients included major churches, important civic groups, and wealthy patrons, including the Medici family. His standing in the artistic community is recognized by the fact that he served on the committee which determined the placement of Michelangelo’s monumental David.

Terracotta Angel Candlesticks

The Eucharist or Communion is a Christian sacrament instituted by Jesus Christ at the final supper before His crucifixion. He shared bread and wine with His disciples and told them the bread represented His body and the wine, His blood. His followers were to partake of the bread and wine as a reminder of His sacrifice and its eternal significance.

In Roman Catholic churches, the elements of the Eucharist are kept in a tabernacle, a locked and decorative box, built into the wall or placed on the altar. As part of the Catholic Mass, candles on either side of the tabernacle are lit. Traditionally, the candles are reminders that Christ is the light of the world and the church.

M&G’s angels probably held candles on either side of a tabernacle. These angels may have been part of a matching tabernacle and angel set, or they may have been used with a tabernacle made of other materials. There are few Renaissance terracotta tabernacles still in existence, and very few of those still have their original angel candlesticks. Of the existing Renaissance terracotta angel candlesticks, most lack tabernacles and some even lack their partner angel.

M&G’s terracotta candlesticks are a typical height—roughly 22 inches; however, their design details vary greatly. Some Renaissance angel candlesticks stand, others kneel. Some wear robes, stoles, surpluses, sashes, jewelry, or belts; others have intricate collars, cuffs or hems. Some are barefoot, some wear sandals, and others wear shoes. Many have wings, and some, like M&G’s, were designed wingless.

M&G’s Pair of Angels with Candlesticks began as a piece of wood wrapped in wet cloths. A molded clay body was formed around the cloths. The body then received a head, arms, hands, feet, clothing details, and candle holder. Some of these additions were based on standard clay molds, and others were hand-sculpted from raw clay. When the sculpture was complete and the clay set, the wood and cloths were removed, leaving a hollow center, necessary for proper drying and firing.

The head and hands of M&G’s angels are not glazed; these areas are the color of baked clay. A tin oxide glaze was painted over all the areas to be glazed and then fired, leaving a beautiful white as seen in the angels’ collars and sleeves. Next, a blue cobalt and a yellow lead glaze were painted over the white. When fired again, the glazes fused with the terracotta, became enameled, and their colors permanent.

Renaissance sculptors rarely signed their works. If found, contracts and payment records can establish who created larger objects; however, smaller works are most often associated with a particular workshop based on style, quality, and the figure’s individual details. Experts agree that M&G’s angels can be attributed to Benedetto Buglioni and his workshop.

Although these angels no longer serve during church services, they do speak to us of the craftmanship of Renaissance tin-glazed terracotta masters. They may also cause us to think of those who saw them in the warm glow of their candles more than 500 years ago.

 

William Pinkston, retired educator and M&G volunteer

 

Suggested Reference

Della Robbia: Sculpting with Color in Renaissance Florence by Marietta Cambareri, with contributions by Abigall Hykin and Cortney Harris

 

Published 2025

 

The Adoration of the Shepherds, Pier Francesco Sacchi

In this lovely Adoration of the Shepherds we see one of the worshipers playing a musical instrument–an instrument used for village celebrations during the painter’s lifetime.

The High Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci

If Raphael’s paintings reflect the philosophic concepts and artistic tastes that shaped the time, Leonardo’s life and work highlight technical innovations that would take western art to a whole new level.

Madonna and Child: Ambrosius Benson

In this lovely painting, Ambrosius Benson captures the innovative spirit of the Renaissance and Reformation painters.

Bonifazio Veronese

Sacred Conversation

Bonifazio de’ Pitati, called Bonifazio Veronese

Below the image, click play to listen.

 

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